Introduction

Upon release from state prison in the United States, 68% of criminals are arrested within three years. Recidivism is a major issue. Why do criminals choose to go back to a life of crime after being given a chance to start anew? Crime is considered an addiction for criminals. Adrenaline, dopamine, reward and emotional arousal are all aspects of what makes crime addictive. Throughout the past 50 years, crime rates have fluctuated across the globe and researchers have tried to understand why people continue to offend and rates continue to rise and fall. Addiction is a leading factor in recidivism based on many of the findings. This paper will examine why criminal activity becomes addictive, focusing on the roles of adrenaline, dopamine and emotional arousal.

Adrenaline

It could be assumed that criminal acts are merely poor decisions made out of impulse or desperation, but upon further study, there is reason to believe that many reoffenders fall into an unfortunate cycle of relapse due to an addiction to the hormone adrenaline. Bjerregaard (n.d.) argues that the balance between what is frequently described to be a mundane and monotonous life and an adrenaline-filled criminal lifestyle seems to be a struggle to maintain, with the criminal lifestyle eventually outweighing the ordinary. The research highlights the thrill of a criminal act, such as the adrenaline rush of a heist, which in turn causes dependency on these behaviours as participants increasingly crave the rush of adrenaline. While there are multiple factors affecting crime rates, such as poverty, upbringing and environment, addiction is a major cause for reoffending.

How exactly does adrenaline affect the human body, and why is it addictive? Adrenaline is released into the bloodstream upon experiencing a stressful situation, triggering the fight-or-flight response. Physiological changes occur during this bodily response, such as an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate. Compulsive behaviours are activated due to the stress response, and through negative reinforcement – the encouragement of a desired behaviour through the removal of an unpleasant stimulus – these behaviours can act as a driving force for addiction (Sabio, n.d.). When an individual grows addicted to adrenaline, they may find themselves feeling withdrawal symptoms upon stopping the behaviour producing this thrill. Withdrawal can result in cravings, restlessness and agitation, often leading to reoffending. This is where negative reinforcement plays a role: criminals commit crimes in order to avoid those distressing feelings that come along as symptoms of withdrawal from adrenaline (Skinner, 1974).

Adrenaline addiction is also present within extreme sports, and professional athletes who partake in activities such as skydiving, ice climbing and mountaineering, score higher on the sensation seeking scale (SSS-V). Accordingly, they find themselves repeatedly seeking the same sensations and searching for adrenaline. Alongside scoring higher on the SSS-V, these athletes underestimate the severity of danger and risk. This underestimation is also present in criminals; offenders may find themselves miscalculating the true risk of committing illegal acts, not believing or expecting to be detained and sentenced to time in prison. Surprisingly, motivations for competing in these extreme sports seem to stem from the same root as individuals with substance addiction; both experiencing withdrawal-like symptoms when absent from their addictions and even exhibiting compulsive behaviours (Sabio, n.d.).

Fear, stress and anger are all emotions that can result in aggressive behaviour. These are complex sensations that are experienced in instances where adrenaline is released. As a result of this, an indirect relationship between higher levels of adrenaline and aggressive behaviours can be seen. Lower levels of adrenaline seem to give rise to a different reaction. A study conducted in 1998 investigated the link between hyperactivity, adrenaline excretion and crime. The results obtained from the study indicated that males characterised by high hyperactivity and low adrenaline excretion had persistent criminal careers, whereas males characterised by low hyperactivity and high adrenaline excretion were without criminal careers (Magnusson, 1998). From this, it becomes clear that boys exhibiting hyperactive behaviours excrete less adrenaline in both normal and stressful situations. These low levels of adrenaline result in lower physiological arousal and may have the potential to reduce an individual’s sensitivity to fear, leaving them vulnerable to impulsive and antisocial behaviours, which are strong prerequisites for criminal offending. This study provides insight into how physiological factors such as adrenaline are important in shaping an individual’s moral decision-making and that neurochemical imbalances should be cause for concern in the possibility of vulnerability to criminal behaviour.

Additionally, substance addiction can also act as a catalyst for criminal behaviour, with the National Center for Drug Abuse Statistics revealing that 80% of prison inmates have abused drugs or alcohol (NCDAS, n.d.). Noradrenaline, a hormone released alongside adrenaline, plays a key role in the addiction of substances and the compulsive use of them; more specifically, the use of cocaine, caffeine and amphetamines (García-Sáinz, 2002). This neurotransmitter heightens sensitivity to drug cues, leaving individuals vulnerable to the cravings of substances through the activation of the prefrontal cortex and amygdala.

Dopamine

Dopamine and the reward system play a significant role in many addictions, producing a similar response when engaging in criminal activity as when engaging in substance use. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that crime is also addictive. This section will examine the role of dopamine in addiction, helping to explain how recidivism falls into the category of addiction.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter and hormone that serves many functions, including regulating mood and emotions, learning and memory, attention and focus, movement and coordination, motivation, sleep, stress response, and reward pathways and reinforcement (Harvard Health Publishing, n.d.). Behaviour reinforcement occurs when “the dopaminergic system orchestrates the release of dopamine, facilitating its transmission to various brain regions” (Gu, Geng & Zhu, 2024). 

Dopamine takes three main pathways in the brain based on the function needing to be performed.

• The most significant of these pathway is the mesolimbic pathway, which connects the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in the midbrain to the nucleus accumbens (NAC) in the basal ganglia. When an individual experiences something rewarding, like eating, exercising or achieving a goal, the VTA releases dopamine, which travels to the NAC, producing feelings of pleasure and reinforcing the behaviour being presented.
• Dopamine also travels through the mesocortical pathway, which links the VTA to the prefrontal cortex (PFC). This pathway is responsible for motivation and the assessment of risk and reward, a vital part of considering whether or not to commit crime and achieving the desired outcomes.
• The third pathway, the nigrostriatal pathway, connects the substantia nigra to the striatum and is involved in coordinating movement and habit formation.

Addictive substances and behaviours, such as substance use, gambling, social media or criminal activity, trigger an excess of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway, often many times stronger than natural rewards, and reinforces the behaviour or substance as something that is beneficial to the body and brain. Continual repetition of the addictive behaviour overstimulates the brain’s reward circuitry, causing it to adapt to the situation by reducing dopamine receptor availability (particularly D2 receptors) and lowering baseline dopamine levels, causing the individual to crave the substance regularly. As a result, everyday pleasures like food, relationships and hobbies become less satisfying. Over time, addiction harms the prefrontal cortex by reducing its ability to control impulses and make rational decisions, which leads to negative behaviour seeking, namely the pre-existing addiction, despite negative consequences. The combination of dopamine increase causing everyday depression, intense cravings and impaired self-control traps individuals in a cycle of dependency on the addictive behaviour.

Considerable research has been conducted on the presence of dopamine in criminals and its effect on recidivists. For example, Van Erp and Miczek (2000) evaluated the dopamine levels and serotonin levels in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex of rats before, during and after a confrontation. Dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens were elevated for up to 60 mins after the confrontation, with the peak occurring around 20-30 minutes at 140% increase in dopamine. Similarly, there was a 120% increase in dopamine in the prefrontal cortex (Van Erp & Miczek, 2000). The dopamine increase reflects behavioural activation in anticipation of the confrontation and has a correlation with individuals more prone to violent episodes. It was also noted that as the number of fights increased, the rats were much more willing to take part on a regular basis (Van Erp & Miczek, 2000). In the first confrontation between the rats, it took around 2-3 minutes for them to begin fighting and they exhibited less aggression compared to the second confrontation, where it took a significantly shorter period of time. These findings demonstrate that dopamine has a large impact on violence, contributing to repetitive behaviour and dependence on the violent action. Moreover, according to Gu, Geng and Zhu (2024), as the crime gets more severe, more dopamine is released. Evidently, the more severe the crime, the more likely the criminal is to become a recidivist and an addict.

The process of deterence was examined by Hale (1997) in a study of 132 inmates convicted of rape. Findings showed that inmates thought about three things before deciding whether or not to commit a crime: certainty of punishment; perceived severity of punishment; and potential gain (Hale, 1997). The inmates were asked to rate different scenarios either “high risk” of getting caught (50-100% chance) or “low risk” of getting caught (0%-49%). Regardless of the anticipated rewards, if the situation was deemend “low risk”, it was likely to occur (Hale, 1997); however, if the inmate was seeking personal satisfaction, they were more likely to defy a “high risk” rating. These results can be applied to a variety of crimes such as shoplifting, arson and assault, and when paired with the results from Van Erp and Miczek’s study, it becomes clear how and why recidivism occurs. Once a criminal has committed their first crime, they become more likely to do so again as the perceived risk of consequences is reduced; meanwhile, dopamine pathways reinforce the addictive behaviour. 

Emotional Arousal

The reward system relates very closely to the effects of emotional arousal in the body. The autonomic nervous system and the brain-heart interaction both heavily correlate to how an individual feels emotions that influence their judgement when committing crimes and reoffending (Candia-Rivera et al., 2022; Oskarsson et al., 2021).

In a study conducted on male criminals, Oskarsson et al. (2021) found that the nervous system provides two identifications of precursors for criminal behaviour: low resting heart rate (RHR) and low systolic blood pressure (SBP). As early as adolescence, low RHR has been exhibited as a risk of developing criminal-like behaviour, presenting as a lack of anticipatory fear during certain high-pressure events (Oskarsson et al., 2021). Similarly, systolic blood pressure is indicative of the body’s fight-or-flight response. Signs of aggressive behaviour in adolescent boys – later linked to aggressive behaviour in adults and, in turn, crime – can be associated with low systolic blood pressure (Oskarsson et al., 2021). In order to counteract this low level of arousal, criminals have a biological response to seek stimulation (and fear) through certain activities. Individuals who have low autonomic arousal are expected to be at greater risk of reoffending due to seeking stimulation (Oskarsson et al., 2021). A similar pattern occurs in addiction, where the activity or substance becomes a pathological method of fulfilment (Nakken, 1996). As early as childhood, the object of addiction has the ability to produce a positive and pleasurable mood change to the consumer’s body.

In Oskarsson et al.’s study, reoffense outcomes were divided into violent vs. non-violent crimes, with violent crimes encompassing homicide, assault, manslaughter, kidnapping, illegal confinement, unlawful coercion, gross violation of a person, unlawful threats, robbery, arson and officer violence. It was concluded that a low resting heart rate and low systolic blood pressure were linked to a higher risk of reoffending, no matter the specific crime (Oskarsson et al., 2021), highlighting the role of arousal-seeking in recidivism rates. A key example of this is kleptomania, where the main motive for the crime is the act of stealing itself; the value or meaning of the item is less important (Karpman, 1929). When the person feels an emotional impulse, they act. This act is preceded by feelings of anxiety and the need for relief. Another possible motive is associated with sexual arousal. There is a shift from the need for sex to the need to steal, with the criminal behaviour acting as a release of anxiety with a loss of tension (Karpman, 1929). This sensation of relief is similar to those produced by the reward system, encouraging the activity to continue.

As the majority of these responses come from bodily functions, they can be challenging to treat. Traditional treatment programmes may not benefit those who have a low resting heart rate; the way the body reacts to low levels of fear and stimulation-seeking makes it hard to break out of the cycle, learn from mistakes and alter thought patterns. Criminals with low RHR may require more targeted approaches for treatment which concentrate on the under-aroused fight-or-flight response. We recommend multilevel intervention programmes for individuals who are stuck in these consistent patterns of seeking emotional arousal.

Conclusion

In light of these findings, it is clear that there is a complex relationship between addiction and crime: adrenaline and its link to sensation seeking encourages impulsive decision-making; dopamine’s role in the brain’s reward system sheds light on how addiction can result in irrational behaviour; and finally, emotional arousal intensifies the urges that come with addiction. Not only do these points provide insight into the biological and behavioural effects of addiction in crime, but they suggest that to reduce crime, addiction should be treated as a root cause rather than just using punishment as deterrence. Further research must be conducted, targeting the connection between neurochemical imbalances and addiction and how this can be a key motivator for crime. Addiction should be more globally recognised as a condition, challenging everyone to consider rehabilitation methods, prevention and societal responses. It is important to consider the implications of crime being an addiction, such as how that understanding can be used to prevent repeat crime and how it can be used to improve the judicial system.

Alper, M., Durose, M.R. & Markman, J. (2018). 2018 Update on Prisoner Recidivism: A 9-Year Follow-up Period (2005-2014), Bureau of Justice Statistics [online]. <https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/2018-update-prisoner-recidivism-9-year-follow-period-2005-2014>

Altikriti, S., Nedelec, J.L. & Barnes, J. (2022). The influence of individual differences on the formation of perceptions of risk, social cost, and rewards of crime: A meta-analysis, Journal of Criminal Justice, 82, 101962.

Bjerregaard, A. (n.d.). From Adrenaline to Routine: Understanding the Motivations and Key Influences for Leaving a Criminal Lifestyle, Lund University [thesis]. <https://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=9175166&fileOId=9175170>

Candia-Rivera, D., Catrambone, V., Thayer, J.F., Gentili, C. & Valenza, G. (2022). Cardiac sympathetic-vagal activity initiates a functional brain–body response to emotional arousal, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(21), e2119599119.

Chester, D.S., DeWall, C.N., Derefinko, K.J., Estus, S., Lynam, D.R., Peters, J.R. & Jiang, Y. (2016). Looking for reward in all the wrong places: Dopamine receptor gene polymorphisms indirectly affect aggression through sensation-seeking, Social Neuroscience, 11(5), pp. 487-494.

García-Sáinz, J.A. (2002). Adrenaline junkies: Addicted to the rush?, The Biochemist, 24(5), pp. 19-21. 

Gu, C., Geng, Y.-C. & Zhu, L.-N. (2024). Dysregulation of dopamine neurotransmission in drug addicts: Implications for criminal behavior and corrective interventions, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 15.

Harvard Health Publishing (n.d.). Dopamine: The pathway to pleasure, Harvard Medical School [online]. <https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure>

Hale, R. (1997). Motives of reward among men who rape, Americal Journal of Criminal Justice, 22, pp. 101-119.

Karpman, B. (1929). Impulsive Neuroses and Crime: A Critical Review, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 19(4). 

Magnusson, D. (1998). Individual Development: Toward a Developmental Science, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 143(1), pp. 88-96.

Mednick, S.A. & Volavka, J. (1980). Biology and crime, Crime and Justice, 2, pp. 85-158.

Miller, P.M. (Ed.). (2013). Principles of Addiction: Comprehensive Addictive Behaviors and Disorders (Vol. 1), Elsevier.

Nakken, C. (1996). The addictive personality : understanding the addictive process and compulsive behavior (2nd ed.), Hazelden.

National Center for Drug Abuse Statistics. (n.d.). Drug Related Crime Statistics, NCDAS [online]. <https://drugabusestatistics.org/drug-related-crime-statistics/>

Oskarsson, S., Kuja-Halkola, R., Latvala, A., Andersson, A., Garcia-Argibay, M., Bertoldi, B.M., Raine, A., Patrick, C.J., Larsson, H. & Tuvblad, C. (2021). Low autonomic arousal as a risk factor for reoffending: A population-based study, PLOS One, 16(8), e0256250.

Raine, A. (2002). The Biological Basis of Crime. In: Wilson, J.Q. & Petersilia, J. (eds) Crime: Public Policies for Crime Control.

Sabio, J. (n.d.). Addicted to the Rush: The Anatomy of Sensation Seeking, Grey Matters Journal Temple University [online]. <https://greymattersjournaltu.org/issue-8-1/project-four-yjynj-5xlgj>

Skinner, B.F. (1974). About behaviorism, New York.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2016). Facing Addiction in America: The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health, US Department of Health and Human Services.

Van Erp, A.M.M. & Miczek, K.A. (2000). Aggressive behavior, increased accumbal dopamine, and decreased cortical serotonin in rats, The Journal of Neuroscience, 20(24), pp. 9320-9325.

Williams, J. (2016). Poverty and Crime, Murray State University.